Featured Post from Villanova University

Application of Road Salt Can Have Widespread and Long-Lasting Impacts, Says Villanova’s Steven Goldsmith, PhD

Feb 13, 2025

5 min

Streaks of white that coat roads and cars. Powdery footprints smudged into floors. It’s the time of year when much of the United States relies on road salt to keep ice at bay and accepts the nuisances that come with it. But beyond the inconvenience, all that salt has potentially serious, long-term effects on the environment, human health and infrastructure.


Steven Goldsmith, PhD, an associate professor of Geography and the Environment at Villanova University, researches topics in watershed biogeochemistry and environmental health. A focus of his lab is the study of de-icing practices on water quality. Recently, Dr. Goldsmith shared insights from his work, exploring the widespread consequences of road salt and potential solutions to reduce its harm.


Villanova PR: You have led or participated in research focused on the environmental impacts of road salt application, often locally, but with much broader implications. What have some of those studies found?


Steve Goldsmith: In 2022, we published a paper showing that salt—sodium in particular—is seeping into Philadelphia's water supply, and it's timed with snow melts. We found that if you drank a glass of tap water during the peak period in the winter of 2018-19, your sodium intake would be six times what the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recommends within a glass of water for someone on a low-sodium diet. We are susceptible in this region because most of our water supply comes from rivers, and the rivers receive that salt runoff. Some of our findings indicate this is a chronic issue and not limited to winter months. All that contaminated shallow groundwater causes the concentration to rise year-round, even in the summer.


In a recent paper, we discuss the issue of salt that lands on the side of the road. When it does, it infiltrates into soil, and then it goes into shallow groundwater before entering our streams. Oftentimes when salt is applied to the road and you receive that initial precipitation, you are left with runoff with salinity near the concentration of sea water, which is very bad for freshwater organisms.


PR: Have those studies found other impacts beyond those created directly by sodium?


SG: It’s certainly not just a sodium issue—it's also a chloride issue. Chloride does have a negative impact on aquatic organisms, but it can also corrode drinking water infrastructure. If you have lead pipes in that infrastructure, that can lead to a range of human health issues. Even just to prevent those problems, applying chemicals to protect from the corrosion of pipes increases costs.


Perhaps the worst part is when road salt infiltrates shallow soil and groundwater, the sodium is left behind preferentially in soils because it's displacing other positively charged elements, which could then go into groundwater. The elements it replaces are metals. If we have more salt runoff on the side of the roads, chances are, if we look in those streams, we are going to see higher concentrations of heavy metals like copper, zinc and even lead.


PR: You have mentioned the efficacy of brine. What is brine and why is it more effective than traditional road salt?


SG: If you’ve ever driven behind a rock salt truck, you probably noticed it pelts your windshield and shoots salt everywhere. A lot of that rock salt ends up following the natural trajectory of the road, which is designed to drain towards the sides to keep water from pooling. As soon as a snowstorm happens, it's going to melt and flow into the storm drain. That, of course, is bad for the environment, but also doesn’t help remove ice from the road.


With brine, the application is a diluted road salt with water mixture that is usually about 23 percent sodium chloride by volume, and it’s referred to as an “anti-icing” measure. The saltwater infiltrates the top layer of pavement and embeds in the roadway itself, which keeps ice from crystallizing when snow or water hits the surface.


To use an analogy, let’s say you have a large rock that you placed on top of the pavement, but you also have a quarter of that rock’s volume in sand. If you put that sand onto the pavement, it will permeate into nooks and crannies. That's the same idea here: use less material and in a way that makes it stick better to the surface and reduces the need to reapply as often during and after storms.


PR: What are potential positive impacts if municipalities switch from road salt to brine?


SG: There are limited studies on this, but it's been shown that if done properly, brining can reduce salt runoff into streams by anywhere from 23 to 40 percent. If it's 40 percent, you have almost cut the problem in half, and that lower peak salt concentration and runoff would have a profound positive impact on aquatic organisms that are downstream. From a cost standpoint—and I say this theoretically because there are other up-front costs associated with brining at the municipal level—if you reduce salt concentrations by up to 40 percent it means you apply a lot less and therefore spend a lot less.


PR: What can individuals do to decrease road salt runoff, and how much of an impact does individual use have?


SG: We can start by addressing the household salt application problem. Another one of our recent papers suggests that other impervious surfaces, like driveways, sidewalks and parking lots, are probably contributing even more than the roadway application. The best estimate is that individual or private contractor use could be over 10 times what you see on roads. For researchers, part of addressing this is trying to understand why people apply so much salt on their personal properties: are they afraid of lawsuits? Keeping with the Joneses? Are they not aware of ordinances that say you have to shovel within a certain number of hours, which would negate the need for salt anyway?


For homeowners and other individuals, one proposed solution is to use a coffee mug’s worth of salt for every 10 sidewalk squares. Think of it as a “low-sodium diet” to make sure you’re not overapplying. It’s a way we can limit our use of salt and do so in a way that doesn't jeopardize safety. These individuals can also sweep up salt applied before a storm that never materialized to use before the next one. This will prevent the possibility of rain needlessly dissolving the salt.


PR: Are there effective alternatives to road salt that individuals can use?


SG: The only truly effective alternative, unfortunately, is simply using less road salt. While some people apply sand, it also washes into local streams, causing environmental harm. Another option that has gained attention is beet juice—what I like to call the “Dwight Schrute” solution. Beet juice actually works better than road salt because its organic acids prevent ice from crystallizing at temperatures much lower than those at which rock salt is effective. However, from an environmental standpoint, beet juice contains high levels of nutrients, which can contribute to algae growth if it enters waterways. Additionally, recent studies suggest it may also be toxic to aquatic organisms. The growing consensus is that while some road salt is necessary, we need to use less of it.


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Twenty years ago, Hurricane Katrina hit the southeastern coast of the United States, devastating cities and towns across Louisiana, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama and beyond. The storm caused nearly 1,400 fatalities, displaced more than 1 million people and generated over $125 billion in damages. Rob Traver, PhD., P.E., BC. WRE, F.EWRI, F.ASCE, professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Villanova University, assisted in the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' (USACE) investigation of the failure of the New Orleans Hurricane Protection System during Hurricane Katrina, and earned an Outstanding Civilian Service Medal from the Commanding General of USACE for his efforts. Dr. Traver reflected on his experience working in the aftermath of Katrina, and how the findings from the investigation have impacted U.S. hurricane responses in the past 20 years. Q: What was your role in the investigation of the failure of the New Orleans Hurricane Protection System? Dr. Traver: Immediately after Hurricane Katrina, USACE wanted to assess what went wrong with flood protections that had failed during the storm in New Orleans, but they needed qualified researchers on their team who could oversee their investigation. The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), an organization I have been a part of for many years, was hired for this purpose. Our job was to make sure that USACE was asking the right questions during the investigation that would lead to concrete answers about the causes of the failure of the hurricane protection system. My team was focused on analyzing the risk and reliability of the water resource system in New Orleans, and we worked alongside the USACE team, starting with revising the investigation questions in order to get answers about why these water systems failed during the storm. Q: What was your experience like in New Orleans in the aftermath of the hurricane? Dr. Traver: My team went down to New Orleans a few weeks after the hurricane, visited all the sites we were reviewing and met with infrastructure experts along the way as progress was being made on the investigation. As we were flying overhead and looking at the devastated areas, seeing all the homes that were washed away, it was hard to believe that this level of destruction could happen in a city in the United States. As we started to realize the errors that were made and the things that went wrong leading up to the storm, it was heartbreaking to think about how lives could have been saved if the infrastructure in place had been treated as one system and undergone a critical review. Q: What were the findings of the ASCE and USACE investigation team? Dr. Traver: USACE focused on New Orleans because they wanted to figure out why the city’s levee system—a human-made barrier that protects land from flooding by holding back water—failed during the hurricane. The city manages pump stations that are designed to remove water after a rainfall event, but they were not well connected to the levee system and not built to handle major storms. So, one of the main reasons for the levee system failure was that the pump stations and levees were not treated as one system, which was one of the causes of the mass flooding we saw in New Orleans. Another issue we found was that the designers of the levee system never factored in a failsafe for what would happen if a bigger storm occurred and the levee overflowed. They had the right idea by building flood protection systems, but they didn’t think that a larger storm the size of Katrina could occur and never updated the design to bring in new meteorological knowledge on size of potential storms. Since then, the city has completely rebuilt the levees using these lessons learned. Q: What did researchers, scientists and the general population learn from Katrina? Dr. Traver: In areas that have had major hurricanes over the past 20 years, it’s easy to find what went wrong and fix it for the future, so we don’t necessarily worry as much about having a hurricane in the same place as we’ve had one before. What I worry about is if a hurricane hits a new town or city that has not experienced one and we have no idea what the potential frailties of the prevention systems there could be. Scientists and researchers also need to make high-risk areas for hurricane activity in the United States known for those who live there. People need to know what their risk is if they are in areas where there is increased risk of storms and flooding, and what they should do when a storm hits, especially now with the changes we are seeing in storm size.

5 min

Rubin Observatory Releases First Images, as The Villanova One Sky Center for Astrophysics Begins Celestial Partnership

If the first few frames are any indicator of a blockbuster movie, hold the 2035 Best Picture Oscar for the Vera C. Rubin Observatory and its ambitious new 10-year project. On June 23, 2025, scientists at the state-of-the-art facility in the mountains of north-central Chile gave the public its first glimpses into the capabilities of its 8.4-meter Simonyi Survey Telescope, equipped with the world’s largest digital camera—a 3.2 megapixel, 6,600-pound behemoth that can photograph the whole southern sky every few nights. Its task is a decade-long lapse record-called the Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST). The first shots on that journey have left both the general public and astronomical community in awe, revealing in rich detail a mind-boggling number of galaxies, stars, asteroids and other celestial bodies. “The amount of sky it covers, even in just one image, is unprecedented,” said David Chuss, PhD, chair of the Department of Physics, who viewed the first images with colleagues at an organized watch party. “It’s such high-precision, beautiful detail,” added Kelly Hambleton Prša, PhD, associate professor of Astrophysics and Planetary Sciences. “It’s just mind-blowing.” What Makes Rubin and LSST So Unique? Simply, this revolutionary instrument, embarking on an equally revolutionary initiative, will observe half the sky to a greater depth and clarity than any instrument ever has before. Consider this: "The Cosmic Treasure Chest” image released by Rubin contains 1,185 individual exposures, taken over seven nights. Each one of those individual exposures covers 10 square degrees of night sky, which is about the same as looking up at 45 full moons positioned around one another. It may seem like a small size, but click the image yourself, and zoom in and out. The amount of sky captured in that range—enough to show roughly 10 million galaxies—is astounding. Per the Observatory, “it is the only astronomical tool in existence that can assemble an image this wide and deep so quickly.” “At the end of 10 years, Rubin will have observed 20 billion galaxies, and each night in that time frame it will generate 20 terabytes of data,” Dr. Hambleton Prša said. “And, because Rubin has so many different filters, we get to see the same objects in so many different ways.” According to Dr. Hambleton Prša and Dr. Chuss, the power and precision of the Rubin LSST, combined with the shear area of the sky that will be observed, will allow for an incredibly in-depth study of myriad objects, processes and events in ways nobody has ever studied them before. “For example, in our galaxy, we expect to observe only two supernovae per century,” Dr. Hambleton Prša said. “But we're observing 20 billion galaxies. For someone studying this phenomenon, the number of supernovae that they’re going to observe will be off the charts. 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The Rubin team took into consideration continual input from the astrophysics community, separated into what they call “science collaborations.” To achieve this, the Rubin team generated proposed simulations for collecting observations, which the science collaborations then assessed for their specific science goals. “The Rubin team then iterated with the science collaborations, taking into account feedback, to ultimately obtain the best strategy for the largest number of science cases,” Dr. Hambleton Prša said. Dr. Hambleton Prša is the primary contact for the Pulsating Star Subgroup, which is part of the Transients and Variable Stars Science Collaboration, the science collaboration that focuses on objects in the sky that change with time. She was the lead author among 70 co-authors on the roadmap for this science collaboration, underscoring the significant scale of community participation for each of these areas. Joined Under One Sky Dr. Hambleton Prša, Dr. Chuss and other members of the Astrophysics and Planetary Sciences Department and Department of Physics at Villanova have a vested interest in Rubin and the LSST project. In April, the two departments joined forces to launch The Villanova One Sky Center for Astrophysics, co-directed by the two faculty members. With goals to elevate the University's longstanding record of research eminence in astronomy and astrophysics and create opportunities for more students to access the disciplines, the Center partnered with the Rubin Observatory to help realize the mission. Both Villanova and Rubin share a similar vision on expanding access to this broad field of study. Fortuitously, the launch of The Villanova One Sky Center coincided with the initial data released from Rubin. What will result, Dr. Chuss says, will be a “truly awesome impact on both our Center and institution.” Dr. Hambleton Prša will advance her own research of pulsating stars, and Andrej Prša, PhD, professor of Astrophysics and Planetary Science and the primary contact for the Binary Star Subgroup, will broaden his study of short-period binary stars. Joey Neilsen, PhD, associate professor of Physics, will expand his research in black hole astrophysics. Becka Phillipson, PhD, an assistant professor of Physics, who recently led a proposal for Villanova to join the Rubin LSST Discovery Alliance, aims to increase the scope of her study of chaotic variability of compact objects. 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5 min

Taming “The Bear”: Villanova Professor Examines Workplace Toxicity in FX’s Acclaimed Series

In the latest season of FX’s award-winning series “The Bear,” lead character and chef Carmen “Carmy” Berzatto finds himself at a crossroads. A culinary genius, Carmy has successfully overseen the reinvention of his family’s Italian beef shop as a high-end restaurant—shepherding a dedicated, if unpolished, crew of sandwich makers into a world of haute cuisine, fine wine and elevated service. However, over the course of this transition, his exacting standards have contributed to a culture of anxiety, dysfunction and resentment in the workplace. Despite staff members’ professional and personal growth, tempers still flare like burners on a range, with Carmy’s obsessive attention to detail and single-minded pursuit of perfection spurring conflict. By season’s end, grappling with the fallout from a mixed review seemingly influenced by the back-of-house “chaos,” the chef is forced to confront a complicated and thorny question: Am I getting in the way of my own restaurant’s success? Carmy’s dilemma, while fictional, reflects the very real challenges many modern businesses face when excellence is prioritized at the expense of psychological safety and workplace harmony. Per Manuela Priesemuth, PhD, who researches toxic work climates, aggression on the job and organizational fairness, the warning signs are all too frequently overlooked in high-pressure environments like restaurants. “Some high-stakes industries have a characteristic of having toxic behavior more accepted,” says Dr. Priesemuth. “When it’s more accepted or normed, it’s a real problem.” As she explains, workers in the food service industry, much like medical professionals in an operating room or military personnel in a combat zone, have a tendency to view measured communication and thoughtful interaction as a luxury or even, in some cases, a hindrance. Essentially, there’s a common misconception that working with an edge—yelling orders, avoiding dialogue and berating “underperformers”—gets the job done. “In all of these high-stakes environments where it’s thought there’s leeway to talk negatively or disparagingly, people are mistaken in the productivity result,” Dr. Priesemuth says. “It actually changes for the better in positive climates, because people who are treated with dignity and respect are better performers than those who are mistreated.” To Dr. Priesemuth’s point, research increasingly shows that workplace culture, not just talent or technical ability, is an essential driver of organizational success. In an environment like Carmy’s kitchen, where pride and passion often give way to personal attacks and shouting matches, the on-the-job dynamic can effectively undermine productivity. What may begin as an intended push for excellence can instead result in burnout, high turnover and weakened trust—outcomes that are especially problematic in collaborative, fast-paced industries like hospitality. “There’s even evidence that abusive behavior in restaurant settings can lead to food loss,” shares Dr. Priesemuth. “So, there is a sort of retaliation from the employees who are going through this experience, whether it’s measured [in profit margins] or impact on the customer.” In order to prevent these less-than-ideal outcomes, businesses should take steps proactively, says Dr. Priesemuth. More specifically, they should clearly articulate their values and expectations, considerately engage with their staff’s opinions and concerns and consistently invest in their employees’ growth and development. In the world of “The Bear,” a few of Carmy’s managerial decisions in the second season could be seen as moves in the right direction. At that juncture, he was leveraging his industry connections to provide his restaurant’s staff with the tools and training necessary to thrive in Chicago’s fine dining scene, building skills, confidence and goodwill. “If you give people voice—such as input on the menu, for example, or more autonomy in completing a certain task—it boosts morale,” says Dr. Priesemuth. “It helps people feel that they have input and that they are valued members of the team; it’s this sort of collaborative, positive relationship that increases commitment and performance.” Establishing this type of work culture, grounded in open communication, mutual respect and a shared sense of mission, takes concerted effort and constant maintenance. In situations in which toxicity has already become an issue, as it has in Carmy’s kitchen, the task becomes decidedly more difficult. Typically, it demands a long-term commitment to organizational change at the business’ highest levels. “Adjusting the tone at the top really matters,” says Dr. Priesemuth. “So, if the owner were to treat their chefs and waiters with the dignity and respect that they deserve as workers, that also trickles down to, for example, the customer.” A leader’s influence on workplace morale, she contends, is nuanced and far-reaching. When those in charge model a lack of empathy or emotional distance, for instance, a sort of toxicity can take root. Likewise, when they repeatedly show anger, animosity or frustration, those same feelings and attitudes can have an ingrained effect—regardless of a staff’s talent or ability. Given the outsized role owners, supervisors and managers play in shaping organizational culture, Dr. Priesemuth further notes, “Leaders must also feel that they’re being supported. You can’t have someone who’s exhausted, works 80 hours a week and has relationship and money issues and expect them to say, ‘What are your problems? What do you need?’” In many ways, her insights speak directly to the struggles Carmy faces and prompts throughout “The Bear’s” run. At every turn, he’s dogged by family and relationship troubles, mounting financial pressures and unresolved trauma from a past role. Ultimately, as would happen in real life, his difficulty in healthily processing and addressing these issues doesn’t just harm him; it affects his staff, manifesting itself as a need for control and a crusade for perfection. “There are spillover effects from your own personal life into your job role. In the management field, that has become increasingly clear,” says Dr. Priesemuth. “Whatever you’re going through, whether it’s from an old job or something personal, it will automatically spill over into your current work life and your interactions. And, vice versa, what’s happening to you at work will [impact you off the clock].” In dramatic fashion, the fourth season of “The Bear” concludes with Carmy acknowledging as much. Determining that there are other aspects of his life desperately in need of attention, he surrenders the reins of his business to chef de cuisine Sydney “Syd” Adamu and maître d’hôtel Richard “Richie” Jerimovich, appointing them part-owners. While the soundness of this decision remains a subject for the show’s next season, Carmy justifies the move with a blunt admission: “It’s the best thing for the restaurant. We have to put the restaurant first… I don’t have anything to pull from.” In the end, in both “The Bear” and management studies, there’s an understanding that building healthy and productive work environments requires active engagement and positive reinforcement on the part of leadership. In a sense, creating a strong work culture is shown to be a lot like preparing a phenomenal meal; it’s a matter of attentiveness, patience and care. Without those ingredients, the result could very well be a recipe for disaster.

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