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Application of Road Salt Can Have Widespread and Long-Lasting Impacts, Says Villanova’s Steven Goldsmith, PhD

Jan 28, 2026

5 min

Streaks of white that coat roads and cars. Powdery footprints smudged into floors. It’s the time of year when much of the United States relies on road salt to keep ice at bay and accepts the nuisances that come with it. But beyond the inconvenience, all that salt has potentially serious, long-term effects on the environment, human health and infrastructure.


Steven Goldsmith, PhD, an associate professor of Geography and the Environment at Villanova University, researches topics in watershed biogeochemistry and environmental health. A focus of his lab is the study of de-icing practices on water quality. Recently, Dr. Goldsmith shared insights from his work, exploring the widespread consequences of road salt and potential solutions to reduce its harm.


Question: You have led or participated in research focused on the environmental impacts of road salt application, often locally, but with much broader implications. What have some of those studies found?


Steven Goldsmith: In 2022, we published a paper showing that salt—sodium in particular—is seeping into Philadelphia's water supply, and it's timed with snow melts. We found that if you drank a glass of tap water during the peak period in the winter of 2018-19, your sodium intake would be six times what the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recommends within a glass of water for someone on a low-sodium diet. We are susceptible in this region because most of our water supply comes from rivers, and the rivers receive that salt runoff. Some of our findings indicate this is a chronic issue and not limited to winter months. All that contaminated shallow groundwater causes the concentration to rise year-round, even in the summer.


In a recent paper, we discuss the issue of salt that lands on the side of the road. When it does, it infiltrates into soil, and then it goes into shallow groundwater before entering our streams. Oftentimes when salt is applied to the road and you receive that initial precipitation, you are left with runoff with salinity near the concentration of sea water, which is very bad for freshwater organisms.


Q: Have those studies found other impacts beyond those created directly by sodium?


SG: It’s certainly not just a sodium issue—it's also a chloride issue. Chloride does have a negative impact on aquatic organisms, but it can also corrode drinking water infrastructure. If you have lead pipes in that infrastructure, that can lead to a range of human health issues. Even just to prevent those problems, applying chemicals to protect from the corrosion of pipes increases costs.


Perhaps the worst part is when road salt infiltrates shallow soil and groundwater, the sodium is left behind preferentially in soils because it's displacing other positively charged elements, which could then go into groundwater. The elements it replaces are metals. If we have more salt runoff on the side of the roads, chances are, if we look in those streams, we are going to see higher concentrations of heavy metals like copper, zinc and even lead.


Q: You have mentioned the efficacy of brine. What is brine and why is it more effective than traditional road salt?


SG: If you’ve ever driven behind a rock salt truck, you probably noticed it pelts your windshield and shoots salt everywhere. A lot of that rock salt ends up following the natural trajectory of the road, which is designed to drain towards the sides to keep water from pooling. As soon as a snowstorm happens, it's going to melt and flow into the storm drain. That, of course, is bad for the environment, but also doesn’t help remove ice from the road.


With brine, the application is a diluted road salt with water mixture that is usually about 23 percent sodium chloride by volume, and it’s referred to as an “anti-icing” measure. The saltwater infiltrates the top layer of pavement and embeds in the roadway itself, which keeps ice from crystallizing when snow or water hits the surface.


To use an analogy, let’s say you have a large rock that you placed on top of the pavement, but you also have a quarter of that rock’s volume in sand. If you put that sand onto the pavement, it will permeate into nooks and crannies. That's the same idea here: use less material and in a way that makes it stick better to the surface and reduces the need to reapply as often during and after storms.


Q: What are potential positive impacts if municipalities switch from road salt to brine?


SG: There are limited studies on this, but it's been shown that if done properly, brining can reduce salt runoff into streams by anywhere from 23 to 40 percent. If it's 40 percent, you have almost cut the problem in half, and that lower peak salt concentration and runoff would have a profound positive impact on aquatic organisms that are downstream. From a cost standpoint—and I say this theoretically because there are other up-front costs associated with brining at the municipal level—if you reduce salt concentrations by up to 40 percent it means you apply a lot less and therefore spend a lot less.


Q: What can individuals do to decrease road salt runoff, and how much of an impact does individual use have?


SG: We can start by addressing the household salt application problem. Another one of our recent papers suggests that other impervious surfaces, like driveways, sidewalks and parking lots, are probably contributing even more than the roadway application. The best estimate is that individual or private contractor use could be over 10 times what you see on roads. For researchers, part of addressing this is trying to understand why people apply so much salt on their personal properties: are they afraid of lawsuits? Keeping with the Joneses? Are they not aware of ordinances that say you have to shovel within a certain number of hours, which would negate the need for salt anyway?


For homeowners and other individuals, one proposed solution is to use a coffee mug’s worth of salt for every 10 sidewalk squares. Think of it as a “low-sodium diet” to make sure you’re not overapplying. It’s a way we can limit our use of salt and do so in a way that doesn't jeopardize safety. These individuals can also sweep up salt applied before a storm that never materialized to use before the next one. This will prevent the possibility of rain needlessly dissolving the salt.


Q: Are there effective alternatives to road salt that individuals can use?


SG: The only truly effective alternative, unfortunately, is simply using less road salt. While some people apply sand, it also washes into local streams, causing environmental harm. Another option that has gained attention is beet juice—what I like to call the “Dwight Schrute” solution. Beet juice actually works better than road salt because its organic acids prevent ice from crystallizing at temperatures much lower than those at which rock salt is effective. However, from an environmental standpoint, beet juice contains high levels of nutrients, which can contribute to algae growth if it enters waterways. Additionally, recent studies suggest it may also be toxic to aquatic organisms. The growing consensus is that while some road salt is necessary, we need to use less of it.


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4 min

Strategic Closure of Strait of Hormuz Puts Pressure on US, Threatens Global Oil Trade Stability

Less than a week after the onset of the war in Iran, and amid escalating conflict in the region, Iran effectively closed the Strait of Hormuz to shipping tankers moving oil from the Middle East by threatening attacks against any vessel who entered the waterway. Thus, the small body of water, which moves a large percentage of the world’s crude oil, has become one of the most discussed places in the world in recent days. Frank Galgano, PhD, is a professor of Geography and the Environment at Villanova University. He is an expert in military and Middle East geography and has also studied global maritime shipping and access to natural resources. Dr. Galgano says there geographic, geopolitical, military and economic factors at play, along with widespread potential consequences, as Iran holds steady on their closure of the strait and the U.S. considers how, or if, it will attempt to help escort oil ships through. Geography and Significance of Strait of Hormuz Situated between Iran to the north and Oman and the United Arab Emirates to the south, the Strait of Hormuz is a narrow shipping lane that connects the Persian Gulf to the Gulf of Oman and, further out, the Arabian Sea. It is one of the most vital chokepoints in the Middle East, along with the Suez Canal, Straits of Tiran, Bab al-Mandab and the Turkish Straits. “Right now, because of oil, it is the most important,” Dr. Galgano said. “Every day, roughly 20 percent of global petrochemical use goes through Hormuz.” The strait itself is barely over 20 nautical miles at its narrowest, but only a small portion of that is shipping lanes. Depth constraints limit shipping to two lanes, each two miles wide, with a two-mile buffer between. “You’re essentially looking at all of that shipping constrained to six nautical miles, and the ships are relatively slow,” Dr. Galgano said. “There are usually about 14-25 tankers every 24 hours transiting the Gulf, so there is always a ship in line." By Iran threatening military action against any oil-carrying ships in Hormuz—and by shipping companies refusing to attempt to traverse it— one-fifth of the global oil trade is essentially cut off indefinitely. That is concerning, given that it takes very little to send global oil prices skyrocketing. Dr. Galgano referenced the 2010-11 Somali pirate issue that caused supertankers—which cost upward of $50,000 a day to operate—to be rerouted. “That alone caused gas prices to raise 10 cents per gallon,” he said. In this case, the biggest impact will be felt throughout Asia, which relies more heavily on oil imports. But the U.S., despite being the second-biggest producer of crude oil last year, will still feel significant effects, since oil is traded globally. “It takes these supertankers eight or 12 days to reach the East Coast from Hormuz,” Dr. Galgano said. “So, a few days later you might see diminished supplies, but there is a critical point where we would face a real shortage.” Attempting to Move Ships Through Hormuz Poses Huge Danger Unlike the Iranian-backed Houthi rebels attacks on Israeli ships and those belonging to its allies in the Red Sea last year, Iran itself has far more sophisticated weapons, along with a strong motive to do whatever it can to put pressure on the U.S. and involved allies. In addition to drones designed for attacking ships—like the ones used by Houthis—Iran also possesses Chinese and Russian anti-ship missiles, according to the professor. “Ships are very vulnerable,” he said, then referencing the 2000 bombing of the USS Cole by Al Qaeda operatives. “That was just two guys in a rubber boat with an explosive device, and it almost sunk the whole ship. If one is carrying oil, it becomes almost like a large fuel bomb.” The United States has weighed the idea of sending a convoy to help escort and protect these ships. They did as much in the late 1980s in Operation Earnest Will, in which President Reagan ordered Kuwaiti supertankers—which were being fired at—to reflag under the U.S. flag so the Navy could legally escort them. But weapons technology has changed, and while U.S. naval ships could certainly defend themselves, “supertankers are slow and it is still an incredibly dangerous operation,” Dr. Galgano said. “The convoy would have to be lucky 100 percent of the time. Iran would only have to be lucky once to hit a ship and cause an immediate fiasco, both physically and in the media.” Global Dependance on Shipped Goods According to Dr. Galgano, between 75 and 90 percent of all items you handle on a day-to-day basis come from inside the hull of a ship: shocks on your car, clothes on your back, or components of your computer. When shipment is disrupted, it can cause supply chain and cost issues. “During the pandemic, Ford was waiting on chips for F-150s, and HP was waiting in chemicals to make ink,” Dr. Galgano said. “Even the ship that got stuck in the Suez Canal a few years ago caused $10 billion in losses per day due to the backup.” For commodities like oil, the indefinite inability to utilize perhaps the most important shipping lanes in the world due to large scale conflict quickly raises the economic stakes to even greater levels. “Iran absolutely knows that, and they see this as a bargaining chip,” Dr. Galgano said. “Cause economic pain to force cessation of the attacks.”

5 min

23andMe’s Bankruptcy Exposes Fragility of How Genetic Data is Utilized Beyond Fee-For-Service, Says Villanova Law Professor

When individuals sign up for direct-to-consumer genetic testing, the extent to which they ever think about their genetic data is likely in the context of the service for which they paid: information on predisposition to a genetic illness, or confirmation of an ethnic background, for example. But that data doesn’t just sit on a shelf, and while the most mainstream concern for such services is the privacy of your data, there is also the question of what else the companies do with it, and how. Ana Santos Rutschman, SJD, LLM, professor and faculty director of the Health Innovation Lab at Villanova University Charles Widger School of Law, is particularly interested in the latter. In June 2025, she co-authored an amicus brief centered on data protection and patient’s interests amid genetic testing company 23andMe’s bankruptcy proceedings. In December, many of those same co-authors published a paper in Nature Genetics, highlighting 23andMe’s bankruptcy as “an inflection point for the direct-to-consumer genetics market,” especially as it pertains to the broader corporate use of individuals’ scientific data. The reason? “How that data is used all depends on the policies of the individual companies,” she said. Genetic Testing Companies Use Your Data For More Than The Services You Pay For Those who utilize genetic testing companies—for any reason—are likely also consenting, often unknowingly, to other unrelated items. This includes acknowledgment of information related to how your data might be further used or monetized. “Most people don't think about secondary and tertiary uses of their data,” said Professor Rutschman. “[What they consent to] is displayed on the website somewhere, but it’s not easily understandable and accessible. It’s fine print.” Such companies often operate beyond the traditional “fee for a service” relationship with consumers. Yes, they will give you the information you paid for—finding out whether you have German ancestry or are predisposed to certain genetic disease—but instead of that genetic data just being stored somewhere, it’s often sold for research purposes. Today, in the age of AI big data, that might look something like this: The company puts your data in a box with parameters, along with thousands of others. Perhaps they are then able to observe a pattern that, until all that data was compiled, was previously unknown. They come up with a diagnostic or a medicine and patent it. That patent is licensed to somebody else, and the company makes money on the product. The use of that data for scientific purposes—even ones that turn a profit— is not problematic in itself, says Professor Rutschman. “Some people may even choose a company that allows scientific research over one that doesn’t. Many people may not care, but some will. The uses are not common knowledge, and that is worrisome. The public should be well-informed about what’s happening.” Deeper problems may arise when they aren’t informed of those potential uses of their data. Professor Rutschman cited the infamous Henrietta Lacks case, in which Lacks’ cells were, and continue to be, one of the most valuable cell lines in cancer research. Neither Lacks nor her family were paid for the widespread use of her genetic material until a settlement was reached long after her death. “When you have biologics involved, a concern is that if you have something potentially valuable, you may not see any money from it.” Bankruptcy Can Cause Policy Upheaval To understand the role bankruptcy can play in all of this, one needs to refer back to the power of individual company policy in this space. There are no external laws that dictate how these companies can further monetize their data, says Professor Rutschman, as long as they don’t violate other laws, such as privacy laws. That means that when a company like 23andMe goes bankrupt, as was the case in 2025, new ownership could enact completely different corporate policies for use of their property. In their specific case, the company was essentially bought back by 23andMe founder and CEO Anne Wojcicki’s non-profit, all but ensuring policies would remain the same. But that is exactly why Professor Rutschman and others are highlighting this specific case. “Bankruptcy is bad in the sense that there's a lot of uncertainty,” she said. “In this instance, the person coming in was the person who was there before, so the policy is likely to continue. But that's very rare. There are a roster of companies with access to biological materials. 23andMe is a good example of something not going horribly wrong, but with the understanding that it absolutely could.” Ways in which that could happen could be new ownership undermining the original intent of the data use by cessation of the company’s previous policies, or charging exorbitant prices to other entities to use that data for scientific research. “Because there is no law, these new owners can essentially do as they please with their proprietary data, unless they do something incredibly careless that amounts to the level of illegal,” Professor Rutschman said. “And that is concerning.” Onus Falls to Companies to Enact Safeguards To ensure a worst-case scenario for such companies does not unfold in a bankruptcy situation, Professor Rutschman points to a number of safeguards they could enact to protect their original commitments, ensure equitable access to data for scientific research and promote fair trade. One of which is implementing a company policy stating that commitments from a previous iteration of the company need to be honored if ownership is transferred. Those could include, as the authors recommend, policies “honoring original research-oriented commitments under which the data were collected,” as well as not “enclosing the dataset for exclusive commercial use.” She also highlights the need for Fair, Reasonable, and Non-Discriminatory (FRAND) voluntary licensing commitments, which are inherently more science and market friendly. “Companies in many sectors have committed to this approach, and we are saying it should apply in this space as well. You’ll charge your royalty, but it can’t be a billion dollars for a data set, nor would it be done by exclusively selling to one entity. You can get that billion dollars by selling to 15, 50 or 100 companies, and from a scientific research perspective, that’s what we want. Otherwise, you have a monopoly or duopoly. “There are a lot of different models that can be used, but ultimately what we are arguing is leaving this unaddressed is a really bad idea. It leaves everything exposed, and something bad is more likely to happen.”

3 min

Villanova's Héctor Varela Rios, PhD, Comments on Bad Bunny's Super Bowl Performance, "Unapologetic" Swagger

On February 8, 2026, 120 million-plus viewers worldwide are expected to tune into Super Bowl LX. However, the battle on the gridiron will be a secondary attraction for many, especially those from Puerto Rico and of Puerto Rican descent (colloquially known as "Boricuas"). Their attention will be focused on this year's halftime show, headlined by Bayamón-born rapper and producer Bad Bunny. Renowned for songs like "Yo Perreo Sola," "La Canción" and "Me Porto Bonito," the pop sensation is expected to bring a distinctive Latin American flair to his set, representing Puerto Rican culture and creativity to an audience unlike any other. Héctor Varela Rios, PhD, the Raquel and Alfonso Martínez-Fonts Endowed Assistant Professor in Latin American Studies at Villanova University, specializes in popular culture and writes extensively on the Boricua community, to which he himself belongs. From his perspective, Bad Bunny's upcoming performance in the Super Bowl halftime show marks "a high point for Puerto Rican pride," both within the U.S. territory and across the globe. "He is not the first Super Bowl performer to claim Puerto Rican ancestry—Jennifer Lopez performed alongside Colombia-born Shakira in 2020—but he is the first island-born Puerto Rican to perform," says Dr. Varela Rios. "At this moment, he is our brightest superstar and absolutely adored throughout Latin America and the world." To the professor's point, Bad Bunny is among the most successful musical acts touring today, having notched more than 7 million records sold, four diamond plaques and 11 platinums all before the age of 32. His popularity has not come at the expense of his art, either, with the rapper having won six Grammy Awards over the course of his career—including three for his latest album, "Debí Tirar Más Fotos." According to Dr. Varela Rios, Bad Bunny's widespread appeal and critical acclaim can be traced to his authenticity, courage and swagger. Singing in Spanish, making deep-cut cultural references and broaching sensitive, seemingly taboo topics, the Latin American pop star has effectively built a following by unabashedly embracing his own identity. (Perhaps tellingly, he titled his second album "Yo Hago Lo Que Me Da La," or "I Do Whatever I Want.") "Bad Bunny is proud of his Caribbean roots and keenly aware of the history of Puerto Rico, which influences his work," says Dr. Varela Rios. "In addition, he is very unapologetic about the content of his lyrics and performing style. It goes beyond mere shock with him; he relishes challenging assumptions of what being an artist should be, or needs to be in order to 'sell records.'" While this daring approach has netted Bad Bunny a number of accolades and a devoted legion of fans, it has not been without its share of detractors. Still, on the biggest stages and under the brightest lights, the celebrated artist has shown no inclination to alter or tone down his act. Dr. Varela Rios predicts the pop star's Super Bowl appearance will be no different. "Bad Bunny is a businessman, and one of the best I've ever seen," he adds. "This is an artist who knows what to do and how to do it, and when the Super Bowl halftime show's lights go down, his performance will certainly be remembered."

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